Methods for determining fitness in plants

ABSTRACT

Means and methods are provided to produce abiotic stress tolerant plants with improved yield based on the specific identification of a DNA methylation signature in said plants out of a population of said plants.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to the field of agriculture more particularly to the field of molecular breeding. The invention provides methods to select (sub)populations of plants, including crop plants, exhibiting a high energy use efficiency, based on their epigenetic profile, more specifically their DNA methylation profile. Also provided are plants and populations of plants exhibiting high energy use efficiency, which may be identified by their epigenetic features.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The production of agricultural goods and in particular food and feed production, in sufficient quantity and quality is an increasingly challenging task. One the one hand, there is a continuous growth of the demand for agricultural products, due to increase in world population as well as increase in the average standard of living for large parts of the world population. On the other hand, the area suitable or available for agriculture is continuously shrinking, partly because of changing climate conditions which can result in deterioration of areas previously suitable for agriculture. A continuous demand exists to increase the yield potential of agricultural crops, or at least maintaining such yield potential when growing agricultural crops under suboptimal or adverse abiotic conditions.

Up to now, efforts to increase the intrinsic yield potential have mainly focused on exploiting the genetic variability within the crops. By traditional breeding techniques existing or induced variant alleles are shuffled into new combinations. More recently, the pool of variability has been expanded through molecular techniques allowing the exchange of genetic material across species, and even kingdom, barriers.

However, much less attention has been devoted to the role epigenetic control mechanisms may play in determining quantitative traits such as yield. Indeed, all quantitative traits such as size and weights in animals or yield, particularly seed yield in crops exhibit variability with a normal distribution, even within a population of genetically identical individuals. Underlying the observed phenotypic variability are genetic components, environmental factors but also epigenetic components. The importance in plants of epigenetic control components in short and long term adaptation to stress has been documented (Molinier et al. 2006, Transgeneration memory of stress in plants. Nature 442, 1046-1049). Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that altered epigenetic states can be transmitted to successive generations that have not been or are no longer exposed to the inducing trigger (also reviewed in Jablonka and Raz, 2009 Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution. The Quarterly Review of Biology 84, No. 2, 131-176).

Various parameters have been employed to establish a correlation with the yield potential of a plant. A positive correlation has been found between yield potential and lower cellular respiration rates. Wilson described the response to selection of dark respiration rate of mature leaves in Lolium perenne and its effects on growth of young plants and simulated swards. (Wilson Ann. Bot. 49, 303-312 (1982)). Wilson and Jones described the effect of selection for dark respiration rate of mature leaves on crop yields of Lolium perenne cv. S23. (Wilson and Jones Ann. Bot. 49, 313-320 (1982)). Kraus et al. reported on the yield advantage of a ‘slow-’over a ‘fast-’respiring population of Lolium perenne cv. S23 which depends on plant density. (Kraus et al. New Phytol. 123, 39-44 (1993)) and on the effect of handling on the yield of two populations of Lolium perenne selected for differences in mature leaf respiration rate (Kraus et al. Physiol. Plant. 89, 341-346 (1993)). Nunes-Nesi et al. described enhanced photosynthetic performance and growth as a consequence of decreasing mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase activity in transgenic tomato plants. (Nunes-Nesi et al. Plant Physiol. 137, 611-622 (2005)). Juczczuk et al. reported on the effect of mitochondrial genome rearrangement on respiratory activity, photosynthesis, photorespiration and energy status of MSC16 cucumber (Cucumis sativus) mutant. (Juczczuk et al, Physiol. Plant. 131, 527-541 (2007)).

De Block and De Brouwer described a simple and robust in vitro assay to quantify the vigour of oilseed rape lines and hybrids. (Plant Physiol. Biochem. 40, 845-852 (2002)). WO02/066972 provides methods and means for determining parent inbred plant lines with good combining ability, for determining good combinations of parent inbred plant lines capable of yielding hybrid lines with high heterosis, and further for determining the agronomical performance of different plant lines, which can be performed in vitro by determining the electron flow in the mitochondria under control and stress conditions.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,444,469 describes methods of increasing or decreasing the rate of development of a plant by either increasing or decreasing the amount of methylated DNA found in the plant. The invention further provides plants that have been altered such that their rate of maturation is either increased or decreased relative to the rate of maturation of a non-altered plant.

Lira-Medeiros et al. (PLoS One, 2010 Apr. 26; 5(4):e10326) disclose that individuals with similar genetic profiles presented divergent epigenetic profiles that were characteristic of the population in a particular environment. It was found that of two morphologically different but genetically similar populations of mangrove plants from two different habitats, the population growing near a salt march displayed a hypomethylation of their genomic DNA when compared to plants growing at a riverside.

Boyko et al., (PLoS One. 2010 Mar. 3; 5(3):e9514) show that exposure of Arabidopsis plants to stresses, including salt, UVC, cold, heat and flood, resulted in a higher homologous recombination frequency, increased global genome methylation, and higher tolerance to stress in the untreated progeny. This transgenerational effect did not, however, persist in successive generations. Treatment of the progeny of stressed plants with 5-azacytidine was shown to decrease global genomic methylation and enhance stress tolerance.

Hauben et al. (2009, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA., 106: p 20109-14.), demonstrated that, starting from an isogenic canola population, it was possible to generate through recurrent selection populations with distinct physiological and agronomical characteristics such as yield, energy use efficiency and abiotic stress tolerance, and that those populations were genetically identical but epigenetically different. It was furthermore found that both the DNA methylation patterns as well as the agronomical and physiological characteristics of the selected lines were heritable and that hybrids derived from parent lines selected for high energy use efficiencies had a 5% yield increase on top of heterosis. But although each of the selected lines was characterized by a specific epigenetic profile (histone modifications and global DNA methylation), taken together, the epigenetic characteristics did not reflect the physiological properties of the lines.

Thus, none of the prior art documents describe that specific epigenetic profiles can be linked to particular agronomical characteristics such as energy use efficiency, yield and tolerance to adverse abiotic conditions. The present invention discloses that particular changes in DNA methylation status during development correlate to the plant's vigor and gene expression and as such these features can be used to select (sub)populations of plants which have a higher yield potential and tolerance to adverse abiotic conditions. This problem is solved as herein after described in the different embodiments, examples and claims.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods of finding a DNA methylation profile (or a DNA methylation signature which is equivalent wording) for a plant with a high energy use efficiency. In one embodiment the invention enables the artisan to correlate the DNA methylation profile with a plant with a high energy use efficiency.

In one embodiment the invention provides for a method to produce of a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of individual plants; b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said collection/population at least a first and a second developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation of said sampled individual plants; c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two stages; d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation profile between said first and said second stage and e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a high relative occurrence of epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from: i) gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or ii) no changes in C, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH.

In another embodiment the selected at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least five epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from the group consisting of: no change in CTT-, mCTT-gain, no change in CCG, no change in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.

In yet another embodiment the epigenetic features of said at least one plant are selected from the group consisting of mCTC-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss, and mCCG-loss.

In a specific embodiment at least eight epigenetic features are present in the high energy use efficient plant when compared to other plants of said population.

In another specific embodiment said at least one high energy use efficient plant has a high relative occurrence of mCGG-loss when compared to other plants of said population.

In a further embodiment, when the epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at said first stage, at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least 4 epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are selected from mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain, mCTT-gain, no change in CTC-mCTC or mCTG-gain.

In an even further embodiment the at least four features are selected from mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain or mCTT-gain.

In alternative embodiments, high EUE plant can be produced by selecting for a low relative occurrence of epigenetic features that are characteristic for low EUE as described herein.

In a specific embodiment the first stage is the cotyledon and the second stage is the 3th leaf stage.

In another specific embodiment the plurality of individual plants consists of plants which are genetically uniform.

In a specific embodiment the methylation profile is determined by methylation sensitive AFLP.

In another specific embodiment the plant is a Brassica, rice, wheat or tomato plant.

In another specific embodiment the at least one produced high energy use efficient plant is further crossed with another plant.

In another embodiment the invention provides for a method for increasing harvest yield comprising the steps of a) providing a population of plants or seeds which are high energy use efficient; b) growing said plants or seeds in a field; c) producing a harvest from said plants or seeds.

In another embodiment the invention provides for a plant, seed or population of plants, obtained by any one of the methods described herein before.

In a specific embodiment the invention provides for a differential DNA methylation profile, characterized in that at least five epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are detected in the genomic DNA of a plant between a first and a second developmental stage said plant, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from a) a gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or b) no changes in unmethylated cytosines, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH.

In a specific embodiment the differential DNA methylation profile is used to carry out any of the methods of the invention.

In another specific embodiment the invention provides for a method for obtaining a biological or chemical compound which is capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants form the same species or variety comprising the steps of a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of individual plants, b) subjecting said population of plants with a biological or chemical compound, c) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said collection/population at least a first and a second developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation of said sampled individual plants; d) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two stages; e) determining the epigenetic features of each of said individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation profile between said first and said second stage, wherein the presence of epigenetic features in the methylation profile as defined herein before is indicative for a biological compound capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Hierarchical clustering of the selected lines at the epigenetic level. (Coefficient=similarity coefficient).

FIG. 2: Hierarchical clustering of the selected lines at the transcriptomic level (Coefficient=similarity coefficient).

FIG. 3: Heat map depicting Spearman integrative analyses of changes and no changes in DNA methylation and expression from cotyledons to leaves in respect of the vigor/EUE of the lines.

FIG. 4: Schematic representation of the significant correlations between methylation and expression profiles.

FIG. 5: Heatmap (A) and corresponding two-way hierarchical clustering under Pearson's coefficient of similarity (B) of changes and no changes in DNA methylation and expression from cotyledons to leaves in respect of the vigor/EUE of the lines based on a selection of the markers which were polymorphic at the cotyledon stage. HR (high respiring) and LR (low respiring) correspond to low vigor (LV) and high vigor (HV) respectively. Clade I (I) and clade II (II) represents features characteristic for a high EUE and for a low EUE respectively.

FIG. 6: Heatmap (A) and corresponding two-way hierarchical clustering under Pearson's coefficient of similarity (B) of gain in DNA methylation and decrease in expression from cotyledons to leaves in respect of the vigor/EUE of the lines based on a selection of the markers which were polymorphic at the cotyledon stage. HR (high respiring) and LR (low respiring) correspond to low vigor (LV) and high vigor (HV), respectively. Clade I (I) and clade II (II) represents features characteristic for a high EUE and for a low EUE respectively.

GENERAL DEFINITIONS

As used herein “epigenetic, refers to factors such as histone variants, histone post-translational modification and DNA methylation. These epigenetic factors act in concert to regulate gene expression, giving rise to the so-called epigenome. Epigenetic changes do not alter the genome sequence, but can modify gene expression and phenotypes and can also be transmitted to following generations. Epigenetic regulation allows an organism to adapt to changes in the environment and is thus believed to play an important role in modulating response to stress, especially in plants which cannot escape their environment. Thus, together with genetic and environmental factors, epigenetic information determines the variability of a quantitative trait.

An epigenetic marker, as used herein, refers to a specific epigenetic modification (e.g. DNA methylation or histone modification) at a particular site in the genome. Polyploid organisms such as plants, can be monomorphic for a particular epigenetic marker, i.e. on each chromosomal copy, the same modification occurs at that particular site (locus), but can also be polymorphic, i.e. different epigenetic modifications are present on the two or more chromosomal copies at that site (locus).

As used herein “histones” are proteins involved in which package and order the genomic DNA into structural units called nucleosomes, which in turn make up the chromatin, i.e. the combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. Histone modifications are post-translational modifications of particular amino acid residues in the N-terminal region of histones (histon tails). Some histone modifications, such as acetylation and particular types of phosphorylation and ubiqitination are associated with active gene transcription and relaxed chromatin, whereas e.g. biotinylation and sumoylation are associated with gene repression and inactive, i.e. condensed chromatin. Also the types of histones that are incorporated into the chromatin influences chromatin compaction. Environmental stresses can modulate this so-called histone code to influence gene expression (Chinnusamy et al., 2009, Curr Opin Plant Biol 12: p 1-7, Urano et al., 2010, Curr Opin. Plant Biol. 13, p 132-138).

As used herein “DNA methylation”, refers to the addition of a methyl group to the 5 position of the cytosine (C) pyrimidine ring or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine (A) purine ring. DNA methylation is generally associated with gene repression and inactive chromatin. Methylation of DNA mostly takes place on cytosines, and in plants occurs both asymmetriccally (mCpHpH) and symmetriccally (mCpG and mCpHpG). DNA methylation is established by de novo methyltransferases (e.g. DRM1 and DMR2), which in plants are guided to their targets by small RNAs. Symmetric methylation patterns are maintained after DNA replication by maintenance methyltransferases, which methylate the new DNA strand based on the pattern found on the parent strand. Maintenance methylation (i.e. after cell division) is mediated by other methylase enzymes such as the maintenance methylases MET1 and CMT3, although it has recently become apparent that both types of enzymes may also perform the other type of methylation. Demethylation is a process that is less well understood. Methylation can be lost either passively, when the maintenance methylation that usually follows DNA replication is inhibited, or by a more active process when 5-methylcytosine is enzymatically removed. In this process, DNA glycosylases, which are normally associated with DNA repair, recognize and remove 5-methylcytosine from DNA, leading to its replacement with cytosines, a process known as DNA base-excision-repair. However, there are also indications of the presence of enzymes that actively remove 5-methylcytosine from DNA (Chinnusamy et al., 2009, Curr Opin Plant Biol 12: p 1-7; Gehring et al., 2009, Trends in Genetics Vol. 25, p 82-90). Environmental stresses also have an effect of DNA methylation, e.g. cold stress was found to induce DNA hypomethylation, whereas osmotic stress was found to induce hypermethylation (Chinnusamy et al., 2009, supra).

DNA methylation can be assessed using various techniques know in the art, such as, but not exclusively, via Methylation-sensitive restriction endonucleases like Methylation sensitive Amplified Fragments Length Polymorphism (MSAP) as described in e.g. Matthes et al. (2001, Theor Appl Genet 102: p 971-979), Bisulphite treatment of DNA followed by sequencing, Methylated DNA immunoprecipitation, shotgun bisulphate sequencing, as all described in e.g. Chinnusamy et al. (2009, Curr Opin Plant Biol 12: p 1-7), Methylation specific quantum dot fluorescence resonance energy transfer (MS-qFRET) as e.g. described in Bailey et al. (2010, Methods. 2010, Apr. 1), cytosine extension assay as e.g. described in Hauben et al., 2009 (supra) and via methyl-CpG-binding proteins combined with fluorescence/Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) or fluorescently labeled antigen binding fragments of specific antibodies as e.g. described in Kimura et al. (2010, Curr Opin Cell Biol. March 4.).

As used herein, H refers to any of the nucleotides A, T or C, while Y refers to any of the nucleotides C or T.

As used herein “a population of genetically uniform plants”, is a population of plants, wherein the individual plants are true breeding, i.e. show little or no variation at the genome nucleotide sequence level, at least for the genetic factors which are underlying the quantitative trait, particularly genetic factors underlying high energy use efficiency and low cellular respiration rate. Genetically uniform plants may be inbred plants but may also be a population of genetically identical plants such as doubled haploid plants. Doubled haploid plants are plants obtained by spontaneous or induced doubling of the haploid genome in haploid plant cell lines (which may be produced from gametes or precursor cells thereof such as microspores). Through the chromosome doubling, complete homozygous plants can be produced in one generation and all progeny plants of a selfed doubled haploid plant are substantially genetically identical (safe the rare mutations, deletions or genome rearrangements). Other genetically uniform plants are obtained by vegetal reproduction or multiplication such as e.g. in potato, sugarcane, trees including poplars or eucalyptus trees. Genetically uniform plants may also be referred to as “isogenic”.

As used herein, “energy use efficiency (EUE)” is the quotient of the “energy content” and “cellular respiration”. High energy use efficiency can be achieved in plants when the energy content of the cells of the plant remains about equal to that of control plants, but when such energy content is achieved by a lower cellular respiration. Plant with a high EUE are also said to have a high fitness or vigor. A plant can be called fit or vigorous when this line grows vitally, healthy, is tolerant to various biotic and abiotic stresses and most importantly has a high yield.

As used herein, increased yield refers to an increase of yield at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 3%, at least 4%, at least 5% or more when compared to a control plant or to the average of a population.

As used herein, “heterosis effect” or “hybrid vigour” is used to refer to the superiority of heterozygous genotypes with respect to one or more characters, particularly with regard to a character of interest such as yield, in comparison with the corresponding homozygotes.

Whenever reference to a “plant” or “plants” according to the invention is made, it is understood that also plant parts (cells, tissues or organs, seed pods, seeds, severed parts such as roots, leaves, flowers, pollen, etc.), progeny of the plants which retain the distinguishing characteristics of the parents, such as seed obtained by selfing or crossing, e.g. hybrid seed (obtained by crossing two inbred parental lines), hybrid plants and plant parts derived there from are encompassed herein, unless otherwise indicated.

A “variety” is used herein in conformity with the UPOV convention and refers to a plant grouping within a single botanical taxon of the lowest known rank, which grouping can be defined by the expression of the characteristics resulting from a given genotype or combination of genotypes, can be distinguished from any other plant grouping by the expression of at least one of the said characteristics and is considered as a unit with regard to its suitability for being propagated unchanged (stable).

The term “comprising” is to be interpreted as specifying the presence of the stated parts, steps or components, but does not exclude the presence of one or more additional parts, steps or components. A plant comprising a certain trait may thus comprise additional traits.

It is understood that when referring to a word in the singular (e.g. plant or root), the plural is also included herein (e.g. a plurality of plants, a plurality of roots). Thus, reference to an element by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the element is present, unless the context clearly requires that there be one and only one of the elements. The indefinite article “a” or “an” thus usually means “at least one”.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention is based on the observation that isogenic plant lines that have been selected for either high or low vigor based on their energy use efficiency (EUE) over multiple generations of backcrossing (Hauben et al, 2009) display distinct epigenetic profiles during development. Low vigor lines LV80, LV82, high vigor lines HV76, HV77 and HV76-derived line “crashed”, which resembles the high vigor lines in the cotyledon stage but low vigor lines later in development, as well as their parental line “Simon”, were evaluated for changes in their genomic DNA methylation pattern (cytosine methylation) between the cotyledon and the 3th leaf stage. It was found that low EUE/vigor plants are characterized by no changes in methylated cytosines, whereas high EUE/vigor plants are characterized by changes in cytosine methylation, i.e. demethylation and de novo-methylation) and no changes in unmethylated cytosines during growth. The most evident epigenetic feature characteristic for high vigor plants appeared the loss of cytosine methylation in a mCCG context.

In a first embodiment, the invention therefore relates to a method which allows the selection of one or more plants (e.g. a subpopulation) with a high energy use efficiency (“EUE”) and thus a high yield, particularly seed yield potential, from an initial population of plants from the same species or variety, e.g. genetically uniform plants. High energy use efficiency is a quantitative trait for which variability (along a normal distribution curve) exists within a population of (genetically uniform) plants. The method comprises the following steps:

-   -   a. providing a population consisting of a plurality of         individual plants;     -   b. obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said         collection/population at least a first and a second         developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation         of said sampled individual plants;     -   c. determining of each of said individual plants the methylation         profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two         stages;     -   d. determining the epigenetic features of each of said         individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation         profile between said first and said second stage;     -   e. identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a high         relative occurrence of epigenetic features characteristic for         high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said         population, wherein said epigenetic characteristics are selected         from:         -   i. changes (gain and/or loss) of methylated cytosines (mC);             and/or         -   ii. no changes in unmethylated cytosines (C)

As used herein, “a high relative occurrence when compared to other plants of the population”, refers to the occurrence of an epigenetic feature characteristic for high EUE that is higher than the average occurrence of that epigenetic feature in that population. Preferably, the plant or plants are selected that have the highest occurrence of the most of those epigenetic features. “A high relative occurrence” with respect to other plants of the population or the average of the population refers to an occurrence that is at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20% lower, at least 30% lower, at least 40% lower, at least 50% higher than the occurrence in another plant of the population or than the average occurrence of a particular epigenetic feature of the population.

As used herein, epigenetic features that are characteristic for high EUE, is intended to mean those changes or no changes in DNA methylation that have been most frequently observed between the developmental stages in plants with a high EUE (i.e. higher than the average of the population) when compared to plants with a lower EUE (i.e. lower than the average of the population), comprising gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines (mC) and/or no changes in unmethylated cytosines (C). Preferably, the changes in mC occur within a mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH context. The no changes in C preferably occur within a CG, CHG and/or CHH context. More specifically, those features comprise no changes in CTT, mCTT-gain, no changes in CCG, no changes in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.

Thus, in a further embodiment, the at least one plant that is selected has a relative high occurrence of at least five epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of that population, wherein those epigenetic features are selected from the group consisting of: no changes in CTT, mCTT-gain, no changes in CCG, no changes in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.

In a further embodiment, the at least five epigenetic features comprise mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.

In another embodiment, the method of the invention relates to selecting the at least one plant which has a high relative occurrence of at least eight of the epigenetic features no changes in CTT, mCTT-gain, no changes in CCG, no changes in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss, when compared to other plants of said population.

In yet another embodiment, the at least one plant that is selected has a high relative occurrence of mCCG-loss when compared to other plants of said population, preferably the highest.

It was furthermore found that when the clustering analysis was restricted to epigenetic markers that were polymorphic at the first developmental stage (i.e. markers that were monomorphic at the first developmental stage were excluded), high EUE plants were characterized by the following epigenetic features: mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain, mCTT-gain, no change in CTC-mCTC or mCTG-gain.

Thus, the invention also provides a method to produce a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of         individual plants;     -   b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said         collection/population at least a first and a second         developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation         of said sampled individual plants;     -   c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation         profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two         stages;     -   d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said         individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation         profile between said first and said second stage;     -   e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a high         relative occurrence of at least four epigenetic features         characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to         other plants of said population,     -   wherein said epigenetic features are selected from: mCTG-loss,         mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain,         mCTT-gain, no change in CTC-mCTC or mCTG-gain,     -   wherein said epigenetic features have been determined based on         markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.

In an even further embodiment, the selected at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least five or at least six of said selected epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population when the epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.

Further provided is a method to produce a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of         individual plants;     -   b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said         collection/population at least a first and a second         developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation         of said sampled individual plants;     -   c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation         profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two         stages;     -   d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said         individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation         profile between said first and said second stage;     -   e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a high         relative occurrence of at least four epigenetic features         characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to         other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic         features are selected from: mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no         change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain or mCTT-gain,     -   wherein said epigenetic features have been determined based on         markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.

Alternatively, high vigor plants can also be obtained by selecting for a low relative occurrence of epigenetic features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency. As used herein, epigenetic features that are characteristic for low EUE, is intended to mean those changes or no changes in DNA methylation that have been most frequently observed between the developmental stages in plants with a low EUE (i.e. lower than the average of the population) when compared to plants with a higher EUE (i.e. lower than the average of the population), such as no changes in methylated cytosines, preferably of mCTH and a gain in methylation on mCHH. More specifically those epigenetic features include mCTA-loss, no changes in CTC, mCCG-gain, no change in mCG, mCTA-gain, no change in mCTG, no change in mCTT, no change in mCTC, no change in CTG, no change in mCTA.

As used herein, “a low relative occurrence when compared to other plants of the population”, refers to the occurrence of an epigenetic feature characteristic for low EUE that is lower than the average occurrence of that epigenetic feature in that population. Preferably, to select for high EUE, the plant or plants are selected that have the lowest occurrence of the most of those epigenetic features. “A low relative occurrence” with respect to other plants of the population or the average of the population refers to an occurrence that is at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 15%, at least 20% lower, at least 30% lower, at least 40% lower, at least 50% lower than the occurrence in another plant of the population or than the average occurrence of a particular epigenetic feature of the population.

Thus, in another embodiment the invention provides a method to produce a plant with high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of         individual plants;     -   b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said         collection/population at least a first and a second         developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation         of said sampled individual plants;     -   c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation         profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two         stages;     -   d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said         individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation         profile between said first and said second stage;     -   e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a low         relative occurrence of epigenetic features characteristic for         low energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said         population, wherein said epigenetic features characteristic for         a low energy use efficiency are selected from:         -   i) no changes in methylated cytosines, preferably of mCTH         -   ii) gain in methylation on mCHH

More specifically, those features characteristic for low EUE comprise: mCTA-loss, CTC-unchanged, mCCG-gain, mCG-unchanged, mCTA-gain, mCTG-unchanged, mCTT-unchanged, mCTC-unchanged, CTG-unchanged, mCTA-unchanged.

Thus, in a further embodiment, said selected at least one plant has a low relative occurrence of at least five epigenetic features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency are selected from the group consisting of: mCTA-loss, CTC-unchanged, mCCG-gain, mCG-unchanged, mCTA-gain, mCTG-unchanged, mCTT-unchanged, mCTC-unchanged, CTG-unchanged, mCTA-unchanged.

In an even further embodiment, the selected at least one plant has a low relative occurrence of at least six or at least seven, or at least eight, or at least nine of said selected epigenetic features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population.

In another embodiment, the selected at least one plant with high EUE has a low relative occurrence of the epigenetic features mCCG-gain, mCTA-gain or mCG-unchanged, or a combination of two or three of those features, when compared to other plants of said population.

When selecting only markers that are polymorphic at the first developmental stage, low EUE lines appeared to be characterized by a high relative occurrence of the following epigenetic features: no change in CTT-mCTT, mCTC-loss, mCCG-loss, mCG-loss, mCTA-gain, no change in CTG-mCTG, mCCG-gain, no change in CG-mCG, mCTT-loss, no change in CTA-mCTA, particularly mCTA-gain, no change in CTG-mCTG, mCCG-gain.

Thus, in another embodiment, the invention provides a method to produce a high EUE plant from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of         individual plants;     -   b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said         collection/population at least a first and a second         developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation         of said sampled individual plants;     -   c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation         profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two         stages;     -   d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said         individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation         profile between said first and said second stage;     -   e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a low         relative occurrence of at least six epigenetic features that are         characteristic for low energy use efficiency when compared to         other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic         features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency         are selected from the group consisting of: no change in         CTT-mCTT, mCTC-loss, mCCG-loss, mCG-loss, mCTA-gain, no change         in CTG-mCTG, mCCG-gain, no change in CG-mCG, mCTT-loss or no         change in CTA-mCTA         wherein said epigenetic features have been determined based on         markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.

In an even further embodiment, the selected at least one plant has a low relative occurrence of at least seven of said selected epigenetic features that are characteristic for low energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population when the epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at the first stage.

In another embodiment, the selected at least one plant with high EUE has a low relative occurrence of the epigenetic features mCTA-gain, no change in CTG-mCTG, mCCG-gain, or a combination of two or three of those features, when compared to other plants of said population when the epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at the first stage.

It has been observed that the selected subpopulation with high EUE were more tolerant to adverse abiotic conditions than the unselected control plants. Accordingly, the invention also provides a method for producing a population of plants or seeds with increased tolerance to adverse abiotic conditions by selection plants or populations of plants according to the methods described herein. As used herein “adverse abiotic conditions” include drought, water deficiency, hypoxic or anoxic conditions, flooding, high or low suboptimal temperatures, high salinity, low nutrient level, high ozone concentrations, high or low light concentrations and the like.

As the yield improvement obtained by selecting subpopulation of plants or plants with high energy use efficiency can be transmitted to subsequent generations in sexual crosses (behaving as a dominant or co-dominant factor) and as that yield improvement in hybrid plants moreover is additional to the normal yield increase due to hybrid vigor, a further embodiment of the invention provides a method for producing a hybrid plant or hybrid seed with high yield or tolerance to adverse abiotic conditions comprising:

-   -   a. selecting a population of plants with high energy use         efficiency according to the methods herein described for at         least one parent inbred plant;     -   b. crossing plants of that population with another inbred plant;     -   c. isolating hybrid seed of the cross; and     -   d. optionally, grow hybrid plants from the seed.

The selection scheme may further be applied to both parent lines and if hybrid production involves male sterility necessitating the use of a maintainer line for maintaining the female parent, the selection schemes described herein may also be beneficially used on the maintainer lines.

The selection scheme has been successfully applied on rice plant populations, Brassica napus plant populations and Lycopersicon esculentum plant populations. Nevertheless, the methods and means described herein are believed to be suitable for all plant cells and plants, gymnosperms and angiosperms, both dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plant cells and plants including but not limited to Arabidopsis, alfalfa, barley, bean, corn or maize, cotton, flax, oat, pea, rape, rice, rye, safflower, sorghum, soybean, sunflower, tobacco and other Nicotiana species, including Nicotiana benthamiana, wheat, asparagus, beet, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, cauliflower, celery, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, onion, oilseed rape, pepper, potato, pumpkin, radish, spinach, squash, tomato, zucchini, almond, apple, apricot, banana, blackberry, blueberry, cacao, cherry, coconut, cranberry, date, grape, grapefruit, guava, kiwi, lemon, lime, mango, melon, nectarine, orange, papaya, passion fruit, peach, peanut, pear, pineapple, pistachio, plum, raspberry, strawberry, tangerine, walnut and watermelon Brassica vegetables, sugarcane, vegetables (including chicory, lettuce, tomato), Lemnaceae (including species from the genera Lemna, Wolffiella, Spirodela, Landoltia, Wolffia) and sugarbeet.

The methods described herein may also be used for the identification of physiological conditions or compounds that affect the performance (vigor, EUE, yield, abiotic stress tolerance etc) of a plant or collection of plants, or to discriminate mutant plants, cells or cell lines from wild-types.

Thus, in yet another embodiment the invention provides for a method for obtaining a biological or chemical compound which is capable of generating a plant with high energy use efficiency comprising a) providing a population of plants of the same plant species, b) subjecting said population of plants with a biological or chemical compound, c) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said collection/population at least a first and a second developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation of said sampled individual plants; d) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two stages; e) determining the epigenetic features of each of said individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation profile between said first and said second stage, wherein the high relative presence of epigenetic features in the methylation profile that are characteristic for a high EUE, i.e. selected from i) gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or ii) no changes in C, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH is indicative for a biological compound capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency. Alternatively, the relative low presence of epigenetic features that are characteristic for low EUE, as described above, is also indicative for a biological compound capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency.

In step (b) any biological or chemical compound may be contacted with the plants or plant parts. It is also envisaged that a plurality of different compounds can be contacted in parallel with plants or plant parts. Preferably each test compound is brought into physical contact with one or more individual plants. Contact can also be attained by various means, such as spraying, spotting, brushing, applying solutions or solids to the soil, to the gaseous phase around the plants or plant parts, dipping, etc. The test compounds may be solid, liquid, semi-solid or gaseous. The test compounds can be artificially synthesized compounds or natural compounds, such as proteins, protein fragments, volatile organic compounds, plant or animal or microorganism extracts, metabolites, sugars, fats or oils, microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, etc. In a preferred embodiment the biological compound comprises or consists of one or more microorganisms, or one or more plant extracts or volatiles (e.g. plant headspace compositions). The microorganisms are preferably selected from the group consisting of: bacteria, fungi, mycorrhizae, nematodes and/or viruses. It is especially preferred and evident that the microorganisms are non-pathogenic to plants, or at least to the plant species used in the method. Especially preferred are bacteria which are non-pathogenic root colonizing bacteria and/or fungi, such as Mycorrhizae. Mixtures of two, tree or more compounds may also be applied to start with, and a mixture which shows an effect on priming can then be separated into components which are retested in the method. Using mixtures, also synergistically acting compounds can be identified, i.e. compounds which provide a stronger priming effect together than the sum of their individual priming effect. Preferably compositions are liquid or solid (e.g. powders) and can be applied to the soil, seeds or seedlings or to the aerial parts of the plant.

In a particular embodiment in the method for obtaining a biological or chemical compound, the epigenetic features are selected from the group consisting of: no change in CTT-, mCTT-gain, no change in CCG, no change in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.

In yet another embodiment the invention provides a differential DNA methylation profile, characterized in that at least five epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are detected in the genomic DNA of a plant between a first and a second developmental stage said plant, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from: i) a gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or ii) no changes in unmethylated cytosines, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH. More specifically, said at least five epigenetic features are selected from no change in CTT-, mCTT-gain, no change in CCG, no change in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss or mCCG-loss.

When selecting only first stage polymorphic markers, said differential DNA methylation profile is characterized in that at least four epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are detected in the genomic DNA of a plant between a first and a second developmental stage said plant, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain, mCTT-gain, no change in CTC-mCTC or mCTG-gain.

Alternatively, the differential DNA methylation profile characteristic for high EUE can also be characterized by the low relative occurrence of epigenic features that are characteristic for a low EUE as described above.

In yet another embodiment the invention provides for a use of the differential DNA methylation profile to carry out the methods for the production of a plant with a high energy efficiency described herein before.

In yet another embodiment the differential DNA methylation profile is used in the method for obtaining a biological or chemical compound which is capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency.

The methods described herein may also be used to classify individual plants of a particular plant variety or plant line according to their performance.

The invention also related to the production of plants with increased vigor/EUE by promoting the occurrence of epigenetic features that are characteristic for high EUE, by e.g. treatment with compounds that influence particular DNA methylation states (e.g. 5-aza-cytidine), or by modulating the expression of RNAs or proteins and the like that are directly or indirectly involved in DNA methylation, such as DNA methylases or demethylases, small RNAs, histone modifying enzymes.

In the description and examples, reference is made to the following sequences:

Sequences

SEQ ID NO. 1: AluI adaptor A SEQ ID NO. 2: AluI adapter B SEQ ID NO. 3: EcoR1 adapter A SEQ ID NO. 4: EcoR1 adapter B SEQ ID NO. 5: HaeIII adapter A SEQ ID NO. 6: HaeIII adapter B SEQ ID NO. 7: MH adapter A SEQ ID NO. 8: MH adapter B SEQ ID NO. 9: MseI adapter A SEQ ID NO. 10: MseI adapter B SEQ ID NO. 11: primer A1 SEQ ID NO. 12: primer A2 SEQ ID NO. 13: primer A3 SEQ ID NO. 14: primer A4 SEQ ID NO. 15: primer E1 SEQ ID NO. 16: primer HA0 SEQ ID NO. 17: primer MH1 SEQ ID NO. 18: primer MH2 SEQ ID NO. 19: primer MH3 SEQ ID NO. 20: primer MH4 SEQ ID NO. 21: primer M2 SEQ ID NO. 22: primer A37 SEQ ID NO. 23: primer A40 SEQ ID NO. 24: primer A41 SEQ ID NO. 25: primer A47 SEQ ID NO. 26: primer A50 SEQ ID NO. 27: primer A51 SEQ ID NO. 28: primer A67 SEQ ID NO. 29: primer A70 SEQ ID NO. 30: primer A71 SEQ ID NO. 31: primer A88 SEQ ID NO. 32: primer A89 SEQ ID NO. 33: primer A94 SEQ ID NO. 34: primer E33 SEQ ID NO. 35: primer HA67 SEQ ID NO. 36: primer MH18 SEQ ID NO. 37: primer MH21 SEQ ID NO. 38: primer MH34 SEQ ID NO. 39: primer MH76 SEQ ID NO. 40: primer MH84 SEQ ID NO. 41: primer M47 SEQ ID NO. 42: primer M50 SEQ ID NO. 43: primer M57

EXAMPLES

The following non-limiting Examples describe methods and means according to the invention. Unless stated otherwise in the Examples, all techniques are carried out according to protocols standard in the art.

Example 1 Methodology

Artificial selection for respiration and EUE, physiological and biochemical assays, field trial and statistics were performed as described in Hauben et al. (2009) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA November 24; 106(47):20109-14 and in the examples 1 and 2 of the priority application EP09075284 (filed on 1 Jul. 2009), both of which references are incorporated herein by reference.

Example 2 Selection and Characterization of Selected Brassica napus Plants with High and Low Energy Use Efficiency

Selection of B. napus plants with high EUE/vigor (HV76, HV77) and low EUE/vigor (LV80, LV82, crashed) was performed as described in Hauben et al. (2009) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA November 24; 106(47):20109-14 and in the examples 1 and 2 of the priority application EP09075284 (filed on 1 Jul. 2009), both of which references are incorporated herein by reference (HV and LV correspond to LR and HR, respectively).

In short, starting with these selected individual plants with high or low EUE multiple cycles of self-crossing and selection for EUE were performed for the production of isogenic clones. Seeds of the low-EUE clone and the high-EUE clone were up-scaled. Stress testing in growth chambers and the greenhouse revealed that high-EUE plants show enhanced tolerance to ozone (4 days, 400 ppb) and heat (10 days, 45° C.) compared with control (“Simon”) and low-EUE plants. In field trials of three subsequent years it could be demonstrated that high-EUE plants yield ˜8% higher (kg seeds/ha) than control plants, while the low-EUE plants yield ˜10% less than control plants. In fields with moderate drought stress, the line with the highest EUE had a 20% higher yield than that of the control, while the seed yield of the line with the highest respiration and lowest EUE dropped by 20% (Hauben et al., 2009).

Example 3 DNA Methylation Analysis and Transcriptome Analysis of Selected B. napus Plants 3.1 Analysis of Changes in DNA Methylation Status

Methylation status, i.e. methylation of cytosine(s) in CG, CYG and CTH context (Y=C or T; H=A, T, or C) was investigated using Methylation sensitive Amplified Fragments Length Polymorphism (MSAP). For this, genomic DNA of B. napus plants of the selected plant lines of the cotyledon and of leaf 3 (just after appearance) was isolated according to the standard chloroform isoamylic alcohol protocol and was subsequently analyzed by DNA gel blot optionally after digestion with cytosine methylation sensitive restriction endonucleases, essentially as described in Hauben et al., 2009 and Matthes et al., 2001, Theor Appl Genet 102: p 971-979, incorporated herein by reference. Sequences of the adapters and primers used are indicated in table 1 and in the sequence listing.

3.1.1 CG Methylome

To investigate changes in cytosine methylation state in CG sequence context, amplified fragments were scored according to the digestibility by the isochizomers HpaII and MspI of methylated inner cytosine residue within the 5′-CCGG-3′ restriction site, for either cotyledons or leaves. HpaII and Msp1 are isochizomers that recognize the same restriction site (5′-CCGG-3′). MspI does not cut if external cytosine is methylated, whereas HpaII fails to cut if internal cytosine is methylated and cuts poorly if external cytosine is methylated. The following Primers Enzyme Combinations (PECs) were used to survey the CG methylome: MH18M47; MH18M50; MH21M57; MH34HA67; MH76HA67; MH84HA67 (resulting in a total of 626 markers).

3.1.2 CYG Methylome

To investigate changes in cytosine methylation state in CYG context, the amplified fragments were scored according to the sensitivity of the isochizomers HpaII and MspI to methylated outer cytosine residue in 5′-CCGG-3′ restriction site (FIG. 1) and to the sensitivity of AluI to methylated cytosines residue within the 5′-AGCTG-3′ restriction site (FIG. 2), for either cotyledons or leaves. The following PECs were used to survey the CYG methylome (Y stands for C and T):

-   -   CcG: MH18M47; MH18M50; MH21M57; MH84HA67; MH76HA67; MH34HA67 (66         markers);     -   CtG: E33A67, E33A70, E33A71 (397 markers);         resulting in a total of 463 markers for the CYG methylome.

3.1.3 CTH Methylome

To investigate changes in cytosine methylation state in CTH context, the amplified fragments were scored according to the sensitivity of AluI to methylated cytosines residue within the 5′-AGCTH-3′ restriction site. The following PECs were run to survey the CTH methylome (H stands for A, T and C):

-   -   CTA: E33A37, E33A40, E33A41 (546 markers);     -   CTC: E33A47, E33A50, E33A51 (448 markers);     -   CTT: E33A88, E33A89, E33A94 (484 markers);         resulting in a total of 1475 markers for the CTH methylome.

TABLE 1 MSAP adapters and primers SEQ ID used Application/name sequence (5'-3') NO after Restriction/Ligation AluI adapters AluI adaptor A GTTCTCAGGACTCATC  1 AluI adapter B GATGAGTCCTGAGAAC  2 EcoR1 adapters EcoR1 adapter A CTCGTAGACTGCGTACC  3 EcoR1 adapter B AATTGGTACGCAGTCTAC  4 HaeIII adapters HaeIII adapter A CTCAGGACTCATCGTC  5 HaeIII adapter B GACGATGAGTCCTGAG  6 Msp1/HpaII adapters MH adapter A CTCGACTGCGTACA  7 MH adapter B CGTGTACGCAGTC  8 Mse1 adapter Mse1 adapter A GACGATGAGTCCTGAG  9 Mse1 adapter B TACTCAGGACTCAT 10 Preamplification (pa) +1 AluI selective primers A1 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTA 11 A2 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTC 12 A3 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTG 13 A4 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTT 14 +1 EcoR1 selective primer E1 GACTGCGTACCAATTCA 15 +0 HaeIII selective primer HAO GACGATGTGTCCTGAGCC 16 +1 Msp1/HpaII selective primers MH1 GACTGCGTACACGGA 17 MH2 GACTGCGTACACGGC 18 MH3 GACTGCGTACACGGG 19 MH4 GACTGCGTACACGGT 20 +1 Mse1 selective primer M2 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAAC 21 Selective amplification +3 AluI selective primers A37 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTACG 22 A1 pa A40 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTAGC 23 A1 pa A41 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTAGG 24 A1 pa A47 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTCAA 25 A2 pa A50 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTCAT 26 A2 pa A51 ATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTCCA 27 A2 pa A67 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTGCA 28 A3 pa A70 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTGCT 29 A3 pa A71 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTGGA 30 A3 pa A88 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTTGC 31 A4 pa A89 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTTGG 32 A4 pa A94 GATGAGTCCTGAGAACCTTTT 33 A4 pa +3 EcoR1 selective primer E33 GACTGCGTACCAATTCAAG 34 +3 HaeIII selective primer HA67 GACGATGTGTCCTGAGCCGCA 35 +3 Msp1/HpaII selective primers MH18 GACTGCGTACACGGCT 36 MH2 pa MH21 GACTGCGTACACGGGG 37 MH3 pa MH34 GACTGCGTACACGGAAT 38 MH1 pa MH76 GACTGCGTACACGGGTC 39 MH3 pa MH84 GACTGCGTACACGGTCC 40 MH4 pa +3 Mse1 selective primers M47 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAACAA 41 M50 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAACAT 42 M57 GATGAGTCCTGAGTAACGG 43

3.1.4 Analysis of Epigenetic Similarity

All scored amplified fragments from the MSAP displays were computed with NTSYS using the UPGMA method in order to survey the epigenetic similarity of the lines (FIG. 1).

The similarity coefficient indicates that, with regard to the CG sequence context, the selected lines are epigenetically similar whatever the development stage is (either cotyledons or leaves). However, with regard to non-CG sequences, the selected isogenic lines appear dissimilar. It was found that the divergence between the selected lines increases from cotyledons to leaves in CYG and CTH sequence contexts. The poor performing lines LV80 and LV82 are epigenetically similar. The high vigor-like line “Crashed” shifts from high to low vigor epigenetic similarity from cotyledons to leaves. The good performing lines HV76 and HV77 are epigenetically similar and Simon is dissimilar from its derivates.

3.2 Analysis of Changes in DNA Transcription Status

Changes in gene expression from cotyledon to leave stage were investigated using cDNA-AFLP, which was essentially performed as described in Vuylsteke et al. (2007; incorporated herein by reference). Briefly, total RNA of the selected plant lines of the cotyledon and 3th leave stage was isolated was extracted using the RNeasy Plant Mini Kit (QIAGEN) and reverse transcribed using the SMART™ cDNA Library Construction Kit (Clontech). The following PECs were used: E31M61, E32M47, E32M50, E32M51, E32M62, E33M50, E33M60, E33M62, E36M47, E43M4855, E46M5041, E46M59.

All scored amplified fragments from the cDNA-AFLP displays were computed with NTSYS using the UPGMA method in order to survey the transcript similarity of the lines (FIG. 2).

It was found that the divergence between the selected lines increases from cotyledons to leaves. The poor performing lines LV80 and LV82 are epigenetically similar. The high vigor-like line “Crashed” is dissimilar to all selected lines at leaves stage. The good performing line HV76 and Simon are closed and similar to HV77 which is still distinct from them.

3.3 Correlation Between Methylome and Transcriptome

The correlation between the percentage of occurrence of the no changes and changes in the various methylation patterns and the transcriptome of the selected plant lines from cotyledon to the 3th leaf stage in respect of the performance of the lines was calculated using R software under Spearman's ρ coefficient correlation. Spearman correlation analysis grouped changes (i.e. (de novo) methylation and demethylation) and no changes (unchan) in cytosine methylation and expression into three clades, with respect to the performance of the lines (low to high vigour), as is indicated in table 2 and visualized in a heat map (FIG. 3). The first clade (I) displays a non-specific pattern in changes and no changes in cytosine methylation and expression. The second clade (II) represents changes and no changes in cytosine methylation and expression highly occurring in the poor-performing lines while the third clade (III) reflects changes and no changes in cytosine methylation and expression highly occurring in the high-performing lines, i.e. this clade represents epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency.

TABLE 2 Percentage occurrence of epigenetic features in selected B. napus lines % per context LV80 LV82 CRASHED SIMON HV76 HV77 c mCTG_Gain 8.23 4.66 6.53 9.48 5.67 5.42 mCG_Lost 3.97 3.68 3.71 4.24 3.72 2.66 CTA_Unchan 53.41 50.00 53.10 52.49 48.00 51.63 mCTC_Lost 6.33 5.73 4.85 8.05 5.63 6.62 mCCG_Unchan 56.36 54.55 48.21 61.40 45.00 48.28 unExp_Unchan 50.79 49.68 43.59 49.89 48.72 48.28 Exp_Decrease 19.89 20.32 22.81 22.47 21.85 19.83 II mCTA_Lost 9.89 14.10 13.05 17.10 13.33 13.02 Exp_Increase 27.41 28.39 31.56 25.62 26.98 29.63 CTC_Unchan 52.51 55.30 56.38 54.03 56.01 54.41 mCCG_Gain 25.45 27.27 32.14 17.54 21.67 17.24 mCG_Unchan 6.20 6.37 5.94 4.99 5.71 5.07 mCTA_Gain 5.71 4.19 5.09 3.80 4.00 3.90 mCTG_Unchan 31.96 30.12 36.50 26.47 30.45 28.92 mCTT_Unchan 30.99 34.33 26.95 22.93 24.34 28.57 mCTC_Unchan 36.94 34.10 33.42 31.95 32.74 33.58 CTG_Unchan 53.48 55.28 50.74 52.61 53.13 54.82 mCTA_Unchan 30.99 31.72 28.76 26.60 34.67 31.45 III Exp_Unchan 1.90 1.61 2.04 2.02 2.45 2.26 CTT_Unchan 53.05 52.49 54.14 53.41 56.09 53.16 mCTT_Gain 5.40 4.48 9.22 12.20 5.73 7.03 CCG_Unchan 0.00 0.00 1.79 0.00 1.67 3.45 CG_Unchan 89.08 88.73 88.86 88.78 88.83 90.10 mCTC_Gain 4.22 4.87 5.36 5.97 5.63 5.39 mCG_Gain 0.74 1.23 1.49 2.00 1.74 2.17 mCTG_Lost 6.33 9.94 6.23 11.44 10.75 10.84 mCTT_Lost 10.56 8.71 9.69 11.46 13.84 11.24 mCCG_Lost 18.18 18.18 17.86 21.05 31.67 31.03

The strength and significance of the established correlations was determined by permutation analysis at p<0.05 under Spearman rank correlation with GraphPadPrism software. Changes and no changes in cytosine methylation state and expression were strongly related in either an increasing or decreasing relationship respectively for Spearman's correlation coefficient 0.8≦ρ≦1 or −1≦ρ≦−0.8 (Table 3, FIG. 4).

TABLE 3 Variable 1 Variable 2 ρ p-value mCG_gain mCG_ unchan −0.8857 0.0333 mCG_gain mCTA_gain −0.8857 0.0333 mCG_lost mCTG_gain 0.8857 0.0333 mCG_unchan mCTC_gain −0.8857 0.0333 CG_ unchan mCTA_lost −0.8857 0.0333 mCTG_lost mCTG_ unchan −0.9429 0.0167 mCTG_lost mCCG_gain −0.8857 0.0333 mCTG_lost mCTA_gain −0.9429 0.0167 mCTG_ unchan mCTA_gain 0.8857 0.0333 CCG_unchang nonExp_ unchan −0.8804 0.0333 mCTA_gain mCTC_gain −0.8857 0.0333 mCTC_gain mCTC_ unchan −0.9429 0.0167 mCTC_gain mCTT_ unchan −0.8857 0.0333 mCTC_unchan mCTT_ unchan 0.9429 0.0167

3.4 Correlation Between DNA Methylation Signature and Seed Yield Vigor

To further investigate the correlation between specific DNA methylation and gene expression profiles with respect to the energy use efficiency parameters of subclones cv. Simon, polymorphic MSAP and cDNA-AFLP markers between cotyledon and leaf developmental stage were first selected and the dataset was subsequently restricted to cotyledon polymorphic markers. This resulted to a selection of 397 from the total of 626 markers representing gain and loss of DNA methylation at CG, CCG, CTG, CTA, CTT and CTC sequence context, as well as activation and inactivation of transcript from cotyledon to leaf. This selection of markers enabled us to address how early changes in DNA methylation and gene expression evolved from cotyledon to leaf and was the basis of a two-way hierarchical clustering under Pearson's coefficient of similarity to identify energy use efficiency-DNA methylation and gene expression signatures, as represented in FIG. 5 and table 4 (representing raw data of heatmap of FIG. 5A).

To avoid redundancy in the information, the analysis was further restricted to markers associated with gain of DNA methylation and transcript inactivation from cotyledon to leaf, as represented in FIG. 6 and table 5 (representing raw data of heatmap of FIG. 6A). When analyzing the relationship within the vigor lines, it becomes apparent that cluster formation is associated with gain of DNA methylation and gene inactivation (FIG. 6). A specific gain-in-DNA methylation and transcript inactivation profile clustered the low vigor lines LV80 and LV82 and Crashed apart from the high vigor lines HV76, HV77 and Simon (p<0.01, FIG. 6). A coincident trend of higher DNA methylation at CG, CTG, CTT and CTC sites in HV76 and HV77 was observed from cotyledon to leaf. Alternatively, gain of cytosine methylation tend to occur in a less extent in the low vigor lines LV80 and LV82, except at CCG and CTA sites where methylcytosines tend to be greatly enriched when compared with the high vigor lines and Simon. These results illustrate the relationship between vigor and seed yield performance and the cumulative abundance of methylcytosines at specific sequence context from cotyledon to leaf in respect to the mitochondrial respiration rate and energy use efficiency of the selected lines.

Besides these changes in DNA methylation that were related to energy use efficiency parameters, cluster analysis showed that transcript inactivation tend to occur in a greater extent in Simon, HV76, and “Crashed” as compared with the other subclones from cotyledon to leaf (FIG. 6). Interestingly, “Crashed” which aligned with the low vigor lines LV80 and LV82 shared a significant trend in gain of DNA methylation at specific non-CG sites with the low respiring lines (FIG. 6). Gain of DNA methylation in CTA and CCG sites tends to occur in “Crashed” as in the low vigor lines LV80 and LV82. When compared to the high vigor lines HV76 and HV77, gain of CG methylation tend to be weakly established in “Crashed”. These results demonstrate the possibility to select specific DNA methylation profiles that represent the vigor and seed yield performance of physiologically selected genotypes for their mitochondrial respiration rate and energy content. Furthermore, they highlight the relative importance of gain of CG methylation from cotyledon to leaf under extended high vigor (low-respiration) selection.

TABLE 4 Percentage occurrence of epigenetic features in selected B. napus lines based on selection of markers that are polymorphic at the cotyledon stage. LV82 LV80 CRASHED HV77 HV76 SIMON mCTG_Loss 32.43 20.93 17.07 27.27 31.11 40.00 mCG_Gained 16.67 0.00 0.00 33.33 14.29 20.00 mCTA_Loss 27.50 12.20 27.78 26.97 31.88 34.62 CCG-mCCG_No change 38.46 25.00 50.00 75.00 64.29 72.73 mCTC_Gained 21.21 8.89 25.58 22.45 22.22 18.75 Transcript inactivation 21.88 26.47 36.36 22.22 42.37 52.24 mCTT_Gained 9.72 18.42 27.85 24.39 20.51 34.18 CTC-mCTC_No change 45.45 62.22 58.14 57.14 57.78 60.42 mCTG_Gained 2.70 16.28 19.51 15.91 13.33 12.50 CTT-mCTT_No change 70.83 53.95 50.63 53.66 52.56 53.16 mCTC_Loss 33.33 28.89 16.28 20.41 20.00 20.83 mCCG_Loss 15.38 25.00 10.00 8.33 14.29 18.18 mCG_Loss 33.33 25.00 16.67 0.00 28.57 40.00 Transcript activation 10.94 13.24 10.61 9.52 5.08 7.46 mCTA_Gained 13.75 14.63 15.56 13.48 7.25 10.26 CTG-mCTG_No change 64.86 62.79 63.41 56.82 55.56 47.50 mCCG_Gained 46.15 50.00 40.00 16.67 21.43 9.09 CG-mCG_No change 50.00 75.00 83.33 66.67 57.14 40.00 mCTT_Loss 19.44 27.63 21.52 21.95 26.92 12.66

TABLE 5 Percentage occurrence of epigenetic features representing a gain in selected B. napus lines based on selection of markers that are polymorphic at the cotyledon stage. LV82 LV80 CRASHED HV77 HV76 SIMON Transcript inactivation 21.88 26.47 36.36 22.22 42.37 52.24 mCTT_Gained 9.72 18.42 27.85 24.39 20.51 34.18 mCTG_Gained 2.70 16.28 19.51 15.91 13.33 12.50 mCTC_Gained 22.22 22.45 18.75 8.89 21.21 25.58 mCG_Gained 16.67 0.00 0.00 33.33 14.29 20.00 mCTA_Gained 13.75 14.63 15.56 13.48 7.25 10.26 mCCG_Gained 46.15 50.00 40.00 16.67 21.43 9.09 

1. A method to produce a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants from the same species or variety comprising the steps of: a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of individual plants; b) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said collection/population at least a first and a second developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation of said sampled individual plants; c) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two stages; d) determining the epigenetic features of each of said individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation profile between said first and said second stage; e) identifying and selecting at least one plant which has a high relative occurrence of epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from: i) gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or ii) no changes in C, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said selected at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least five epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are selected from the group consisting of: no change in CTT-, mCTT-gain, no change in CCG, no change in CG, mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss and mCCG-loss.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from the group consisting of mCTC-gain, mCG-gain, mCTG-loss, mCTT-loss, and mCCG-loss.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein said at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least eight of said epigenetic features when compared to other plants of said population.
 5. The method of any one of claims 1-4, wherein said at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of mCGG-loss when compared to other plants of said population.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least four epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are selected from mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain, mCTT-gain, no change in CTC-mCTC or mCTG-gain, wherein said epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one plant has a high relative occurrence of at least four epigenetic features that are characteristic for high energy use efficiency when compared to other plants of said population, wherein said epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are selected from mCTG-loss, mCG-gain, mCTA-loss, no change in CCG-mCCG, mCTC-gain or mCTT-gain, wherein said epigenetic features have been determined based on markers that are polymorphic at said first stage.
 8. (canceled)
 9. The method of any one of claim 1-4, 6, or 7, wherein said plurality of individual plants consists of plants which are genetically uniform.
 10. (canceled)
 11. The method of any one of claim 1-4, 6, or 7, wherein said plant is a Brassica, rice or tomato plant.
 12. The method of any one of claim 1-4, 6, or 7, wherein said selected at least one plant is further crossed with another plant.
 13. A method for producing a population of plants or seeds with increased yield potential or increased resistance to adverse abiotic conditions comprising selecting at least one plant or seeds with a high energy use efficiency according to any one of claim 1 to 4, 6, or
 7. 14. The method according to claim 13, wherein said selected at least one plant is further crossed with another plant.
 15. A method for increasing harvest yield comprising the steps of a) providing a population of plants or seeds according to claim 13; b) growing said plants or seeds in a field; c) producing a harvest from said plants or seeds.
 16. A method for producing a hybrid plant or hybrid seed with high yield or increased tolerance to adverse abiotic conditions comprising: a) selecting a population of plants with high energy use efficiency according to any one of claim 1 to 4, 6, or 7 for at least one parent inbred plant; b) crossing plants of said population with another inbred plant; c) isolating hybrid seed of said cross; and d) optionally, grow hybrid plants from said seed.
 17. (canceled)
 18. The method according to claim 16, wherein said one parent plant is a male sterile plant and maintaining said male sterile plant requires the use of a maintainer line further characterized in that a population of plants with high energy use efficiency according to any one of claim 1 to 4, 6, or 7 is also selected for the maintainer line.
 19. A plant, seed or population of plants, obtained by any one of the methods of claim 1 to 4, 6, or
 7. 20. A differential DNA methylation profile, characterized in that at least five epigenetic features characteristic for high energy use efficiency are detected in the genomic DNA of a plant between a first and a second developmental stage of said plant, wherein said epigenetic features are selected from: a) a gain and/or loss of methylated cytosines, preferably of mCG, mCHG and/or mCHH; and/or b) no changes in unmethylated cytosines, preferably of CG, CHG and/or CHH.
 21. Use of the differential DNA methylation profile of claim 20 in any of the methods of claim 1 to 4, 6, or
 7. 22. A method for obtaining a biological or chemical compound which is capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency from a collection of plants form the same species or variety comprising the steps of: a) providing a population consisting of a plurality of individual plants, b) subjecting said population of plants with a biological or chemical compound, c) obtaining a genomic DNA sample from individual plants of said collection/population at least a first and a second developmental stage in a manner which allows further cultivation of said sampled individual plants, d) determining of each of said individual plants the methylation profile of said genomic DNA obtained at said at least two stages, e) determining the epigenetic features of each of said individual plants by evaluating the changes in DNA methylation profile between said first and said second stage, wherein the presence of epigenetic features in the methylation profile as defined in claim 20 is indicative for a biological compound capable of generating a plant with a high energy use efficiency.
 23. Use of the differential DNA methylation profile of claim 20 to carry out the method of claim
 22. 